Collaborative Management Strategies for Drug Shortages in Neurocritical Care.

Drug shortages have become all too familiar in the health care environment, with over 200 drugs currently on shortage. In the wake of Hurricane Maria in September 2017, hospitals across the USA had to quickly and creatively adjust medication preparation and administration techniques in light of decreased availability of intravenous (IV) bags used for compounding a vast amount of medications. Amino acid preparations, essential for compounding parenteral nutrition, were also directly impacted by the hurricane. Upon realization of the impending drug shortages, hospitals resorted to alternative methods of drug administration, such as IV push routes, formulary substitutions, or alternative drug therapies in hopes of preserving the small supply of IV bags available and prioritizing them for them most critical needs. In some cases, alternative drug therapies were required, which increased the risk of medication errors due to the use of less-familiar treatment options. Clinical pharmacists rounding with medical teams provided essential, patient-specific drug regimen alternatives to help preserve a dwindling supply while ensuring use in the most critical cases. Drug shortages also frequently occur in the setting of manufacturing delays or discontinuation and drug recalls, with potential to negatively impact patient care. The seriousness of the drug shortage crisis reached public attention by December 2017, when political and pharmacy organizations called for response to the national drug shortage crisis. In this article, we review institutional mitigation strategies in response to drug shortages and discuss downstream effects of these shortages, focusing on medications commonly prescribed in neurocritical care patients.

Operational Advantages of Enteral Resuscitation Following Burn Injury in Resource-Poor Environments: Palatability of Commercially Available Solutions.

BACKGROUND: In recent combat operations, 5% to 15% of casualties sustained thermal injuries, which require resource-intensive therapies. During prolonged field care or when caring for patients in a multidomain battlefield, delayed transport will complicate the challenges that already exist in the burn population. A lack of resources and/or vascular access in the future operating environment may benefit from alternative resuscitation strategies. The objectives of the current report are 1) to briefly review actual and potential advantages/caveats of resuscitation with enteral fluids and 2) to present new data on palatability of oral rehydration solutions. METHODS: A review of the literature and published guidelines are reported. In addition, enlisted US military active duty Servicemembers (N = 40) were asked to taste/rank five different oral rehydration solutions on several parameters. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: There are several operational advantages of using enteral fluids including ease of administration, no specialized equipment needed, and the use of lightweight sachets that are easily reconstituted/ administered. Limited clinical data along with slightly more extensive preclinical studies have prompted published guidelines for austere conditions to indicate consideration of enteral resuscitation for burns. Gatorade® and Drip-Drop® were the overall preferred rehydration solutions based on palatability, with the latter potentially more appropriate for resuscitation. Taken together, enteral resuscitation may confer several advantages over intravenous fluids for burn resuscitation under resource-poor scenarios. Future research needs to identify what solutions and volumes are optimal for use in thermally injured casualties.

Availability and affordability of priority life-saving medicines for under-five children in health facilities of Tigray region, northern Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: In developing countries, child health outcomes are influenced by the non-availability of priority life-saving medicines at public sector health facilities and non-affordability of medicines at private medicine outlets. This study aimed to assess availability, price components and affordability of priority life-saving medicines for under-five children in Tigray region, Northern Ethiopia. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted in Tigray region from December 2015 to July 2016 using a standard method developed by the World Health Organization and Health Action International (WHO/HAI). Data on the availability and price of 27 priority life-saving medicines were collected from 31 public and 10 private sectors. Availability and prices were expressed in percent and median price ratios (MPRs), respectively. Affordability was reported in terms of the daily wage of the lowest-paid unskilled government worker. RESULTS: The overall availability of priority life-saving drugs in this study was low (34.1%). The average availabilities of all surveyed medicines in public and private sectors were 41.9 and 31.5%, respectively. The overall availability of medicines for malaria was found to be poor with average values of 29.3% for artemisinin combination therapy tablet, 19.5% for artesunate injection and 0% for rectal artesunate. Whereas, the availability of oral rehydration salt (ORS) and zinc sulphate dispersible tablets for the treatment of diarrhea was moderately high (90% for ORS and 82% for zinc sulphate). Medicines for pneumonia showed an overall percent availability in the range of 0% (ampicillin 250 mg and 1 g powder for injection and oxygen medicinal gas) to 100% (amoxicillin 500 mg capsule). The MPRs of 12 lowest price generic medicines were 1.5 and 2.7 times higher than the international reference prices (IRPs) for the private and public sectors, respectively. About 30% of priority life-saving medicines in the public sector and 50% of them in the private sector demanded above a single daily wages to purchase the standard treatment of the prevalent diseases of children. CONCLUSIONS: The lower availability, high price and low affordability of lowest price generic priority life-saving medicines in public and private sectors reflect a failure to implement the health policy on priority life-saving medicines in the region.

Burn Resuscitation in the Austere Environment.

Intravenous (IV) cannulation and sterile IV salt solutions may not be options in resource-limited settings (RLSs). This article presents recipes for fluid resuscitation in the aftermath of burns occurring in RLSs. Burns of 20% total body surface area (TBSA) can be resuscitated, and burns up to 40% TBSA can most likely be resuscitated, using oral resuscitation solutions (ORSs) with salt supplementation. Without IV therapy, fluid resuscitation for larger burns may only be possible with ORSs. Published global experience is limited, and the magnitude of burn injuries that successfully respond to World Health Organization ORSs is not well-described.

Burn care in disaster and other austere settings.

In some circumstances, burn care must be delivered in a simple manner without the luxury of modern resources. Such circumstances include care in low- and middle-income countries, war zones, and mass casualty incidents. Triage decisions need to be made carefully, allowing the focus of limited personnel and equipment on those most likely to survive. Simple techniques can be used to help many burn victims, such as utilizing oral resuscitation formulas for burn resuscitation. Although even the best attempts at preparation often fall short, there are many benefits from planning and training.

Factors affecting availability of essential medicines among community health workers in Ethiopia, Malawi, and Rwanda: solving the last mile puzzle.

To understand how supply chain factors affect product availability at the community level, the Improving Supply Chains for Community Case Management of Pneumonia and Other Common Diseases of Childhood Project developed a theory of change (TOC) framework for gathering, organizing, and interpreting evidence about supply constraints to community case management (CCM). Baseline assessments in Ethiopia, Malawi, and Rwanda conducted in 2010 provided information on the strengths and weaknesses of existing CCM supply chains for five main products: antibiotics for pneumonia, oral rehydration solution, ready to use therapeutic food, zinc, and artemether/lumefantrine. The assessments tested the strength and validity of causal pathways identified in the TOC that were believed to influence availability of CCM products among community health workers (CHWs) for treating common childhood illnesses. Results of the assessments showed product availability to be weak in each country, with more than half of CHWs stocked out of at least one tracer product on the day of the assessment. This report will focus on the findings related to three key preconditions of the TOC and how these were used to inform the design of the CCM supply chain improvement strategy in each country. The three key preconditions include product availability at CHW resupply points, supply chain knowledge and capacity among CHWs and their supervisors, and availability of appropriate transportation.

Zinc sulphate for treatment and prevention of diarrhoea and other conditions in children in Papua New Guinea.

Over the last 10 years more than 40 randomized trials of zinc sulphate in diarrhoea have been done in developing countries throughout the world. Almost all have shown a benefit of zinc therapy for 5-10 days, if given with oral rehydration solution, in reducing the severity and duration of severe diarrhoea and preventing diarrhoea in the subsequent 3 months. Zinc has also been proven to reduce mortality in the management of children with severe malnutrition. Two studies have shown a benefit of zinc treatment on the clinical resolution of pneumonia and another study from Africa showed that zinc adjuvant treatment led to a significant reduction in mortality from pneumonia. Despite this overwhelming evidence, few countries in the Asia-Pacific region have scaled up the use of zinc in the treatment or prevention of diarrhoea or other infections. The reasons for this are several, including obstacles to incorporating new treatments into routine drug procurement and distribution mechanisms, and failure to appreciate the steps involved in the promotion of new routine treatments. A much higher priority must be given to ensuring that children with malnutrition, diarrhoea and other infections have access to zinc and oral rehydration solution--both of which are low-cost and life-saving treatments.

Factores que influyen sobre el vaciado gástrico de bebidas deportivas durante el ejercicio / Factors affectin gastric emptying of sport beverage during exercise

Los factores que contribuyen más decisivamente a la fatiga durante el ejercicio físico son el agotamiento de carbohidratos (CHO) y la deshidratación. El proceso final de rehidratación depende tanto del ritmo al cual la bebida abandona el estómago (vaciado gástrico) como de la absorción intestinal; también es conocido que la ingesta de una bebida de reposición adecuada durante el mismo retrasa la fatiga y mejora el rendimiento deportivo. Entre los múltiples factores que influyen en el vaciado gástrico encontramos características propias de la bebida ingerida (volumen, frecuencia de ingesta, densidad energética, osmolalidad, temperatura y pH de la solución), variables dependientes del ejercicio (intensidad y tipo de ejercicio), y otros factores (nivel de hidratación, estrés, cafeína, ritmo circadiano, condiciones ambientales, sexo femenino y fase del ciclo menstrual). Actualmente todos los estudios revisados defienden que las variables más determinantes del ritmo de vaciado gástrico son el volumen de bebida ingerido y la densidad energética de la misma. Existen grandes variaciones individuales en el ritmo de vaciado gástrico y en la tolerancia a la ingesta de importantes volúmenes de bebida, pero se recomienda ingerir bebidas de reposición adecuadas a la práctica deportiva antes, durante y/o después de las sesiones de entrenamiento o el ejercicio, pudiendo así mejorar la tolerancia

Carbohydrate deplection and dehydration are the most important factors affecting gastric emptying. The last process of rehydration depend as soon as gastric emptying rate as intestinal absorption; it is known that an adecuate sport beverage ingestion during exercise delay the onset of fatigue and improve performance. Between many factors affecting gastric emptying are characteristics of a sport drink (volume, frecuency ingestion, caloric content, osmolality, temperature and pH), factors depending of exercise (intensity and type), and others factors (hydration level, stress, caffeine, circadian rhythm, environment conditions, female and menstrual cycle). Actually, all literature revised state the more important factors affecting gastric emptying are the volume and the caloric content of ingested sport beverage. There is large individual variation in gastric emptying rate and tolerance to larger volumes. Training to drink an adecuate sport beverage before, during and/or after training sessions or exercise is recommended and could improve enhance tolerance

Diagnosis and treatment of cholera in the United States. Are we prepared?

OBJECTIVE: To assess cholera recognition and treatment by US health care workers in the largest cholera outbreak in the United States this century. DESIGN: We reviewed the medical records of passengers from a flight on which a cholera outbreak occurred. To determine the availability of oral rehydration solutions, we surveyed treatment facilities and referral pharmacies. SETTING: On February 14, 1992, more than 100 passengers on a flight from South America to Los Angeles, Calif, were infected with toxigenic Vibrio cholerae O1. SUBJECTS: Fifty-four of 67 passengers who sought care in California and Nevada. RESULTS: We reviewed the records of 54 passengers, including 39 with diarrhea and 15 without symptoms. All 17 persons who sought treatment before the outbreak was widely reported by the media had diarrhea. For 12 of these persons, recent travel to South America was noted, but only those four whose records listed cholera as a possible diagnosis were immediately hospitalized. Seven sought care again within 3 days; three were dehydrated, two of these three were hospitalized, and one of these two died. None of the 26 patients suspected to have cholera received appropriate fluids; severely dehydrated patients did not receive Ringer's lactate solution and those not severely dehydrated did not receive an oral rehydration solution. None of the facilities and pharmacies involved stocked World Health Organization oral rehydration salts solution, the preferred solution for treating cholera and other diarrheal diseases. CONCLUSIONS: Treatment of cholera in the United States was suboptimal. Oral fluids appropriate for the treatment of cholera and other diarrheal diseases were generally unavailable. Widespread cholera in the developing world means that US physicians should be prepared to treat "imported" cases. Physicians evaluating patients with diarrhea should obtain a travel history, should consider cholera in patients returning from countries with endemic or epidemic cholera, and should instruct patients in appropriate use of World Health Organization oral rehydration salts solution or other oral rehydration solutions containing 75 to 90 mmol/L of sodium. Pharmacies and medical facilities should stock these solutions.

Evolución de los electrolitos séricos durante el tratamiento de rehidratación de pacientes con diarrea aguda coleriforme / Serum electrolytes during the rehydration treatments of patients with acute cholera diarrhea

Objetivo: evaluar los niveles séricos de sodio, potasio, cloro y reserva alcalina de pacientes oligúricos con deshidratación moderada o severa por diarrea coleriforme al momento de la admisión, al recuperar diuresis luego de rehidratación con ClNa 0.9 por ciento EV y al alta hospitalaria cuando la rehidratación fue continuada con sales de rehidratación oral y solución polielectrolítica EV en unos y sales de rehidratación oral y ClNa 0.9 por ciento EV en otros. Resultados: el volumen de ClNa EV necesario para restablecer el flujo urinario fue de 4.2 +/- 1.2 litros y fue conseguido en 1.8 +/- 0.7 horas. Al momento de la admisión, los valores séricos de Na fueron 135 +/- 5 mEq/L, el K 4.5 +/- 0.7 mEq/L, el cloro 100 +/- 8 mEq/L y la reserva alcalina 23.7 +/- 9.2 mEq/L. Al momento de recuperar la micción solo se apreciaron cambios significativos en la reserva alcalina la que fue encontrada en 28.7 +/- 7.1 mEq/L. Ninguno de los otros electroliticos tuvieron alteraciones significativas. Este patron persistio hasta el momento del alta de los pacientes. No hubo diferencia significativa en los valores bioquimicos finales ni en el curso clínico de los pacientes tratados unicamente con ClNa 0.9 por ciento EV y sales de rehidratación oral y aquellos tratados con ClNa, solución polielectrolítica endovenosa y sales de rehidratación oral